In this article I propose to examine Middle English through one of William Shakespeare’s dramas, Othello. The extracts are taken from Act III.3, and Act IV.2.

I. Morphology

I.1. Verbal forms

I.1.1. Personal Endings

By the end of the Middle English period, the -e suffix in the first person
singular present indicative was lost. In the second person singular present
indicative the ending of the verb was either -est or -st:

[Othello to Iago] “What dost thou say?” (III.3.34.)
[Othello to Iago] “What dost thou say, Iago?” (III.3.95.)

In the third person singular indicative the suffix of the verb was either -(e)th
or -s, which is the grammatically correct ending in Modern English:

“That he hath left part of his grief with me” (III.3.54.)
“[Cassio] Hath ta’en your part - to have so much to-do” (III.3.74.)
“Hath she forsook so many noble matches,” (IV.2.129.)
“Nay, heaven doth know.” (IV.2.133.)

In some cases the 3rd pers. sing. ind. ending of the verb is not used or the verb is not conjugated as in the following example:

“For if he be not one that truly loves you,” (III.3.48.)
“And ever will - though he do shake me off” (IV.2.161.)

I.1.2. Preterite forms

By the early Modern English period, the process of weakening in the verbal sysem is completed. In the second person singular preterite the ending was often -st or -est besides the -(e)d ending which derives from Old English weak verbs’ ending in the preterite:

“O heaven, that such companions thou’dst unfold,” (IV.2.145.)

I.1.3. Past participle forms

“That he hath left part of his grief with me” (III.3.54.)
“When I have spoke of you dispraisingly
Hath ta’en your part - to have so much to-do” (III.3.73-74.)
“Hath she forsook so many noble matches,” (IV.2.129.)
“Have not devised this slander. I will be hanged else.” (IV.2.137.)
Unfit (III.3.31.); humbled (III.3.53.); granted (III.3.83.); come (III.3.93.); called (IV.2.131.); wretched (IV.2.132.); hanged (IV.2.134, 137.);
abused (IV.2.143.); naked (IV.2.147.);

I.1.4. Contracted forms

“I do believe ’twas he.” (III.3.40.)
“Who is’t you mean?” (III.3.44.)
“‘Tis as I should entreat you wear your gloves,” (III.3.78.)
“O heaven, that such companions thou’dst unfold,” (IV.2.145.)
“But shall’t be shortly?” (III.3.57.)
“Shall’t be tonight at supper?” (III.3.57.)

I.2. Personal pronouns: case forms

I (III.3.30.) ; mine own purposes (III.3.31); your (III.3.45.); my (III.3.41.); you (III.3.46.); his (III.3.47.); he (III.3.48.); him (III.3.51); with me (III.3.54.);
for you (III.3.58.); of you (III.3.73.); thou (III.3.95.); thee (III.3.88.);
she (IV.2.129.); her (IV.2.141.); them (IV.2.149.); me (IV.2.161.);

I.3. Relative pronouns

that (III.3.33.);
“What dost thou say?” (III.3.34,95.);
“Nothing, my lord. Or if, I know not what.” (III.3.35.);
“A man that languishes in your displeasure.” (III.3.43.)
“For if he be not one that truly loves you,” (III.3.48.)
“What, Michael Cassio, That came a-wooing with you,” (III.3.71-72.)
“Some such squire he was That turned your wit the seamy side without,” - In early Modern English that could be used to refer to a person in a relative clause;
“Who is it you mean” (III.3.44.)
“What you would ask me that I should deny,” (III.3.70.)
“Who keeps her company?” (IV.2.141.)

I.4. The plural of nouns

I did not find in my text a form of the plural of nouns that would be different from the present day usage.

I.5. Adverbs without “-ly“

“No, sure, I cannot think it,” (III.3.37.)
“That he would steal away so guilty-like” (III.3.48.)
“Farewell, my Desdemona. I’ll come to thee straight.” (III.3.88.)

II. Syntax

II.1. The use of prepositions

“That errs in ignorance and not in cunning,” (III.3.49.) - err in its old or formal use was used without the preposition in.
“I have no judgement in an honest face.” (III.3.50.) - In Standard English, the preposition in is not used after ‘judgement’.
“On Tuesday noon, or night, on Wednesday morn-” (III.3.62.) In Modern English the preposition on is not used when referring to the parts of the day, i.e. “Tuesday (at) noon,” “Wednesday morning.”

II.2. The use of relative pronouns

For the use of relative pronouns see point I.3.

II.3. Impersonal constructions

I have not found any impersonal construction in my text.

II.4. Reflexive constructions

I have not found any reflexive constructions, either.

II.5. Progressive verb forms

“I have been talking with a suitor here,” (III.3.42.) -a present perfect
progressive tense of the verb.

II.6. The use of “do” as an auxiliary

“Ha! I like not that.” (III.3.33.)
“Or if, I know not what.” (III.3.35.)

In Modern English the auxiliary do is compulsory in negative expressions, questions and contradictions for emphasis. In the above examples the auxiliary “do” is not used.
However, in the text one finds examples like “Or that I do not yet, and ever
did,/ And ever will-though he do shake me off/ To beggarly divorcement-love
him dearly,” (IV.2.160-163.) This indicates that in early Modern English the
use of the auxiliary “do” was optional.

II.7. The “His-genitive”

I could not find and example for the “His-genitive” in my text.

II.8. The Group Genitive

No example for the group genitive was found in my text.

III.9.1. Synthetic comparison

“The sooner, sweet, for you.” (III.3.57.)

III.9.2. Analytical and double comparison
I could not find these kinds of comparisons in my text.

III. Semantics

III.1. Five words that are no longer used

note: all of the following dates were taken from the Oxford English
Dictionary (1989) (N.B. You may find the Oxford Etymological Dictionary useful as well)

• mamm’ring on: here ‘hesitating (III.3.71.)
-first attestation in English: 1581
-disappeared: I could not find the date.
• a-wooing: here ’sue in love’ (III.3.72.) note: this word is not listed in the Oxford English dictionary (1989), so I considered woo in this case.
-first attestation: 13th century
• cozening: here ‘cheating’ (IV.2.136.)
-first attestation:1573
-disappeared: 1880
• cogging: here ‘deceiving’ (IV.2.136.)
-first attestation:1532
-disappeared: 1637

III.2. Word that had a different meaning

• poise: here ‘balanced judgment’ (III.3.83.)

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